Understanding Context Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Understanding Context - Assignment Example Web 2.0 technologies risk altering the prior knowledge of students on how to retrieve information, adding another approach of finding information on the Web. In addition, students risk their creative potential and may plagiarize their assignments or exams. Other problems such as online security in the context of Web 2.0 technologies, led to the emergence of learning management systems (LMS’s). The need of Web 2.0 and LMS’s technology in learning and teaching has driven our institution to allocate funds to buy enough computers, and ensure student’s access technology. Similarly, the institution has included the use of technologies in their policy by motivating teachers and students into using Web 2.0 technologies. To ensure the security of the online learning, the school is adopting an LMS system and putting in place training for the teachers to ensure success in the endeavor. On the other hand, the support for online teaching will help the institution cut costs si gnificantly. It will realize this through the integrating of the institution’s library with the LMS. This will reduce the cost of housing books and incur extra costs for professional support. In the same context, the institution is aiming at adopting a blended learning approach. As such, the communication technology based settings will replace the face-to face-learning environment, which will help the institution cut on staffing costs. The institution can later accommodate more students and decrease the number of classes.

Juvemile justice in America chapter 12 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Juvemile justice in America chapter 12 - Essay Example The programme is mostly focused on the thoughts of an individual that leads towards certain undesired actions. These thoughts are because of experiences and other affecting factors. The programme is rooted in the fact that most individuals are aware of their thoughts and behaviours, and that they can change their actions from negative to positive. The change starts from the thoughts and finally the actions taken by the individual. The programme helps individuals to great lengths, it ensures that they adopt a positive line of thought resulting in change of behaviour and equips them with necessary social skills (Bartollas et al, 2014). The above programmes prove to be highly effective however, they are problems associated with them. The behavioural therapy for example rewards positive behaviour and ignores the negative. This type of approach may create further problems when an individual is doing wrong in a bid to seek attention. Ignoring such an individual is wrong because they will try harder to get the attention they seek, creating more

Wound care essentials summative assignment

Wound care essentials summative assignment Module Code: Wound Care Essentials Section 1. Search strategy Describe the strategy you used to retrieve the right resources to help you write your assignment. You must include the key words you used, the sources of your literature, the years searched and the type of literature you were looking for. Harvard (2007) stated that a well-structured literature search is an effective way to get reliable evidence on the topic being searched. The intended sources that will be use are healthcare databases, systematic review libraries and specialist organisations. In searching, keywords were created using Boolean logics AND, OR, NOT and phrases with quotations. The following are the list of keywords: Foot ulcer* CINAHL- retrieved 1842 records -COCHRANE lib retrieved 3 records PubMed retrieved- 1770 records diabetic foot ulcer* CINAHL- retrieved 844 records COCHRANE 2 records Cochrane reviews PubMed 46 records diabetes mellitus* CINAHL 54940 records PubMed 32863 records COCHRANE 0 record diabetic neuropathy* CINAHL 1003 records PubMed 802 records COCHRANE 0 IJDDC 76 records assessment tool* AND diabetic foot ulcer* CINAHL 24 results PubMed 2 results COCHRANE 0 International Journal of Diabetes in Developing Countries 0 manage* AND diabetic foot ulcer* CINAHL 216 results PubMed 24 results COCHRANE 0 IJJDC 0 manage* OR intervention* AND diabetic foot ulcer* CINAHL 224573 results PubMed 24 results COCHRANE 1131 results IJJDC 0 prevalence AND diabetic foot ulcer*- CINAHL 64 results PubMed 9 records COCHRANE 0 record IJJDC 11 records treatment* OR intervention* AND diabetic foot ulcer* CINAHL 316806 PubMed 33 records COCHRANE 39911 records IJDDC 5 records cost* AND diabetic foot ulcer* CINAHL 97 records PubMed 4 records COCHRANE 0 evidence base* AND diabetic foot ulcer* CINAHL 73 records PubMed 1 record COCHRANE 0 care guideline* AND diabetic foot ulcer* CINAHL- 3 records COCHRANE 0 PubMed 0 Eligible studies were identified by searching the Cochrane Library (November 8, 2010), Cochrane Wound group (2000 to November 1st week 2010), PubMed (2000 to November 1st week 2010), EBSCO CINAHL plus (2000 to November 2nd week 2010). Furthermore, reliable websites and links were used also such as www.intute.ac.uk, www.boperis.ac.uk, www.dh.gov.uk, www.library.nhs.uk, Wound Care Alliance, World Wide Wounds Electronic Journal, the Tissue Viability Society, and the International Journal of Diabetes in Developing Countries or www.ijddc.com. Peer reviewed and published journals were used which are reliable and reviewed by other authors. There was no restriction on language of publications. All publications were no more than 10 years old. Section 2. Wound aetiology Select a common wound type (e.g. diabetic foot ulceration, pressure ulcer, leg ulcer, fungating wound, dehisced surgical wound), which you have cared for in your role as a qualified nurse. It may help to reflect on a patient you have cared for with this type of wound. Using contemporary literature to support your work, discuss: What your chosen wound type is How this type of wound develops (including contributory factors) How this type of wound is recognised (common characteristics) Who it affects Prevalence in UK and home country Approximate word count: 800 _______________________________________________________________________________ Your answer here: One of the common types of wounds is diabetic foot ulcer. International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot (2010) defined diabetic foot ulcer in their research system as a full-thickness penetration of the dermis of the foot in a person with diabetes. According to Jeffocoate and Harding (2003) diabetic foot ulceration is a common complication of diabetes and it is disabling and frequently leads to leg amputation. It usually occurs as a result of neuropathic, vascular changes of a diabetic foot, foot deformities, plantar callus and smoking (NICE, 2010). Even though the cause of diabetic peripheral neuropathy is uncertain, it is known that the nerve function of a diabetic patient degenerates in response to metabolic changes, pressure and ischaemia (Alexander, Fawcett Runciman, 2000). On the other hand, the presence of high sugar level in the blood such as sorbitol can cause osmotic swelling and subsequent damage to the nerve cell, increase the risk of vascular disease and can also give rise to neuropathy and increase the risk of infection (Falanga, 2005; Watkins, 2000). Pendsey (2010) stated that the neuropathy in diabetic patients is manifested in the motor, autonomic and sensory components of the nervous system. In motor neuropathy, the innervations of the intrinsic foot muscles are damaged that leads to an imbalance between flexion and extension of the diabetic foot. It also affects the muscles required for normal foot movement altering the distribution of forces during walking. This creates anatomic foot deformities that make abnormal bony prominences and pressure points and causing skin reactive callus at the sites of abnormal load. It then gradually causes skin breakdown and ulceration (Pendsey, 2003). In sensory neuropathy, it affects the peripheral sensation, subsequently loss of sensation that makes the patient unable to feel trauma to their lower extremities. Patient will also feel heaviness, insensitivity to heat, cold and pressure. It is estimated that 45-60% of all diabetic ulcerations are due sensory neuropathy (Frykberg, Zgonis, Armstrong et al., 2006). According to Alexander et al (2000) when mechanical forces continue to be applied on the affected area, it leads to inflammation, abscess formation and, eventually, ulceration. This is also the reason many wounds go unnoticed and get worse progressively since the affected area is continuously subjected to repetitive pressure and shear forces from ambulation and weight bearing without noticing it. In autonomic neuropathy the peripheral nerve function is affected, which controls the distribution of blood through arteriolar vessels. One of the signs and symptoms is decreased perspiration in the lower extremities which make the skin becomes dry and increasingly prone to fissures (Alexander et al. 2000). Moreover, poor blood supply to the foot or ischaemia is another significant risk factor for diabetic foot ulceration, which according to Frykberg et al. (2006) it often occurs in combination with loss of sensation and the researchers also said that an estimated 45% of diabetic ulcers are due to ischaemia and neuropathy. Diabetic foot ulcer is commonly found in areas where the abnormal pressure distribution arises from disordered foot architecture. It is usually located on hallux, first metatarsal and fifth metatarsal heads, and under the heel (Grey, Enoch Harding, 2006). The precipitating causes of foot ulceration and infection are friction in ill fitting or new shoes, untreated or self treated callus, foot injuries, burns, corn plaster, nail infections and heel friction in patients confined to bed (Watkins, 2003). According to International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot (IWGDF) diabetes is global epidemic with devastating human, social and economic consequences. The disease claims many lives and places a severe burden on healthcare systems and economies everywhere, with the heaviest burden falling on low and middle income countries such as Philippines. It is estimated that 250 million people worldwide have diabetes, equating roughly 6% of the adult population with the age group 20-79 years. The number is expected to reach about 380 million by 2025, representing 7.1% of the adult population. This is due to the current lifestyles which is lack of exercise and not having a proper diet. A survey conducted by Morgan, Currie, Smithers, Butler and Peters (2000) revealed that foot problems occur in nearly 20% of diabetic patients. Two-thirds of lower extremity amputations are performed in diabetic patients alone, and a majority of these are preceded by a foot ulcer. Nwabudike and Ionescu-Tirgoviste (2008) set out a study to identify the clinical parameters associated with foot ulceration in diabetic patients. The study suggested that older age diabetic patient poses the risk of developing foot ulcer because of decreased ability to self care, including personal daily foot examinations. This is also a result of poor vision and impaired mobility which also predispose patients to trauma. The study also shows that most patients with ulcer were type 2 diabetic patients and this correlates with the age of the patient group. The average duration of diabetes the patients have was of 11.5 years. It is twice more common in males may be due to the active nature of the activities th at men are engaged compared to women, increasing the likelihood they may suffer from trauma. In Nwabudike (2008) research, it also showed that lack of awareness of the disease process and personal care increasing the likelihood that the ulcers may degenerate and leads to gangrene and amputation. Section 3. Wound Assessment Identify features of your chosen wound aetiology (wound type) that are commonly identified during the assessment process. Now select one of these features and critically discuss different ways of assessing this problem. You must link your discussion to the contemporary wound care literature. Here is a list of wound features commonly identified during assessment: Odour Exudate Infection Wound bed tissue e.g. slough, necrotic tissue Your discussion must make clear which aspect of wound assessment you have chosen and include an exploration of the different options available for measuring, describing and documenting it. Approximate word count: 500 Your answer here: Accurate wound assessment is essential for the appropriate and realistic planning of goals and interventions for patients with wounds (Collier, 2003). Diabetic foot wound has two classifications, the neuropathic foot ulcer and neuroischemic foot ulcer. Differentiating between these entities is essential because their complications are different and they require different therapeutic strategies (Pendsey, 2007). Neuropathic wound has no sensation and foot is warm to touch with intact pulses. The ulcerations are usually located on tips of toes and plantar surfaces under metatarsal heads. It also shows oedema, local necrosis and sepsis. On the other hand, ischaemic ulcer is painful upon rest and usually diminished sensation over period of time. Moreover, the foot is not warm to touch and has no pulse. The ulcerations are often located on margins of foot especially on the medial surface of the first metatarsophalangeal joint and over the lateral aspect of the fifth metatarsophalangeal joint. They also develop on the tips of the toes and heels. Signs of sepsis, necrosis or gangrene are also noted. An established clinical tool TIME which is adapted from Watret (2005) is being used for assessing the wound bed. The acronym stands for tissue, infection, moisture balance and advancing or undermining epithelium. Necrotic tissue, slough and eschar are non-viable tissues that can be found on diabetic ulcer that needs to be removed through debridement while the presence of epithelial tissue and granulation tissue in the wound suggests healing. The unhealthy granulation tissue often dark in colour and frequently bleeds on contact are signs of infection. Moisture in the wound bed needs to be assessed too. Moist is known to stimulate healing by promoting granulation and encouraging debridement, nevertheless, moisture balance should be maintained to prevent the wound from becoming too dry and too moist which could delay wound healing. In addition the wound edges and environment will be assessed for migrating epithelial cells which is a good sign of healing or maceration which suggest poor care. Infection is a major factor that affects the time healing of all wounds. Jeffcoate and Harding (2003) said that infection can cause substantial deterioration and delay wound healing. Infection is an invasion and growth of pathogenic microorganisms in the body. Diabetic foot infection is divided in three categories: superficial and local, soft tissue and spreading or cellulitis, and osteomyelitis (Jeffcoate Harding, 2003). The classic signs of infection are: heat, redness, swelling and pain. Other signs such as increase exudates, delayed healing, odour, and abnormal granulating tissue are also suggesting infection (Grey et al, 2006). Cutting et al (2005) and Edmonds (2005) used a checklist for identifying infection in diabetic foot ulcers. In the checklist, there are four areas; under it are the signs and a box opposite to it to check if certain signs are present. Clinical signs of infection: Cellulitis- acute inflammation of tissue lymphangitis phlegmon- purulent exudate pus/abscess crepitus in the joint erythema increase in exudates volume localised pain malodour probes to bone. Systematic signs of infection: Nausea Fatigue Vomiting Fever chills Probe to bone test: bone palpated no bone involvement Wound culture: wound swab required wound biopsy required. Furthermore, the wound infection continuum of Gary, White, Cooper and Kingsleys (2005; 2010) is also use to measure the extinct of infection. It is also a useful adjunct in identification of treatment objectives. The scoring is from 3-0; score of 3 means spreasing infection and 0 is colonised. Moreover, Gray et al (2010) also have the wound exudates continuum; it identifies presence of infection since excessive exudates suggest infections. Section 4. Wound Management Using the same wound feature that you identified in Section 3; critically discuss the different ways there are of managing this problem. Your discussion must include: The different types of wound care dressings, products and treatments that could be used to manage this problem Other appropriate/related aspects of patient care such as nutrition and positioning How the patient experience can be improved Now select one of your identified dressings and answer the questions in the product information table below: Product information table Name of dressing (the company name) AQUACEL Ag Hydrofiber (Convatec, Hull, UK) Category of dressing (the generic name) Hydrofiber Wound Dressing with Ionic Silver Indications for use Use on acute and chorin wounds, including burns, surgical wounds, diabetic foot ulcers, pressure ulcers, and leg ulcers Contra-indications Aquacel Ag Hydrofiber should not be used on individuals who are sensitive to or who have had an allergic reaction to the dressing and its components such as Na Carboymethylcellolose and silver. Its not compatible with oil-based products, such as petrolatum jelly. Sizes available 2x 2, 4x4.7, 6x6, 8x12, 75x18, 39x18 Adhesive or non-adhesive? Non-adhesive dressing Secondary dressing needed required Moisture retentive dressing such as DuoDERM Extra Thin or Versiva Approximate word count: 1000 Your answer here: Management of diabetic foot ulcers are removal of callus, eradication of infection, and reduction of weight bearing forces, often requiring bed rest with the foot raised (Alexander, Fawcett Runciman, 2000). A large proportion of patients with diabetic foot ulceration will develop infection, including osteomyelitis or bone infection and gangrene (OMeara et al, 2006; McIntosh, 2007). An infected diabetic ulcer needs immediate medical attention. Jude (2007) stated that infection is a major factor that delays wound healing of a diabetic ulcer. It may be necessary to undertake surgical debridement and drainage of pus. Then a wound swab will be taken from the floor of the ulcer after the callus has been removed. A culture of the excised tissue may provide more accurate information (Watkins, 2003). This will help identify the infective microorganisms and the appropriate antibiotic therapy to be given (Alexander et al., 2000). According to Watkins (2003) patients with superficial ulcer infection can be treated with oral antibiotics such as amoxicillin, flucloxacillin and metronidazole. Since the most likely organisms to infect superficial ulcer are staphylococci, streptococci, and sometimes anaerobes. For patients with deep infections should be hospitalised and started on broad-sprectrum antibiotics. Surgical debridement should then be carried out, which should include all the devitalised tissues, sloughed tendons, and infected bones. Jude (2007) said that diabetic foot ulcers generally have multiple organisms isolated from within the wound and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an important vancomycin and teicoplanin can be given to patients infected with MRSA. Anyhow, linezolid can be an alternative which can be administered orally. Furthermore, various topical antimicrobials, antiseptics, and antibiotics have been used also in treating infected diabetic foot ulcer. Topical antibiotics like neomycin, bacitracin, neomycin, gentamycin, polymyxin B, mupiricin, fusidic acid, and topical antiseptics are also used in infected foot ulcers. Although antiseptics and antibiotics are widely used, there is insufficient evidence for their use in diabetic foot ulcers (Jude, 2007). Lipsky, Holroyd Zasloff (2008) studies showed that pexiganan cream can be used as an effective alternative to oral antibiotic therapy in treating mildly infected diabetic foot ulcer and might decrease the risk of selecting antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. Dressings also play an important role in managing infected diabetic foot ulcers. There are various dressings available in the market nowadays. The selection of a dressing will depend on the condition of the ulcer. Most infected diabetic foot ulcers produce copious amount of exudates and pus. Dressings are used to control exudates, maintain a moist wound healing environment and eradicated the microorganisms that cause infection. The appropriate dressings for infected wounds with exudates are foam, alginates, hydrofiber, and hydrocolloids that are combined with silver ion. Silver has been shown to have bactericidal properties and has been used in wounds as an antimicrobial for more than century. It acts by impairing the bacterial electron transport system and some of its DNA function. It kills the microbes on contact through multiple mechanism of action, such as inhibiting cellular respiration, denaturing nucleic acids, and altering cellular membrane permeability. Nowadays, Silver ions have been incorporated in hydrofiber, foam, hydrocolloid, and alginate dressings (Bergin Wraight, 2006). Concreet Foam dressings with silver can be used during inflammatory phase following debridement and desloughing. It also kills microorganisms on the wounds. It is very absorbent that can be left undisturbed for 3-4 days. However, it can cause a drying effect on the wound if there are too little exudates. Hydrofiber dressings such as Aquacel Ag absorb the exudates, protecting the edges of the wounds from maceration at the same time kills the bacteria in the wound. Alginate dressings is use as a primary dressing and for packing wound, it is good for deeply ulcerated wound with high exudates. Another dressing is hydrocolloid; it is best use on wounds with granulating and epithelialising wounds that with low to moderate amounts of exudates. The primary dressings therefore should be either foam-based such as Contreet foam (Coloplast;Humlebaek, Denmark) or hydrofiber AQAg (Aquacel Ag; Convatec, Chester,UK), both of which will absorb the exudates. A moisture retentive dressing can be used as a secondary dressing such as DuoDERM Extra Thin or Versiva. One advantage with the hydrofiber dressing is its capacity to hold wound exudates and microorganisms within its fibres where the bacteria are then eradicated by the ionic silver (Jude, 2007). In addition, the used of hydrofiber dressing in exudating wounds has been proven with research. Jude also implied to improved outcomes in infected diabetic foot ulcers and ulcers that are colonised, one should consider silver dressings as an essential adjunct to wound care to improve its wound bed and to facilitate healing. Studies also revealed that patients treated with AQAg primary dressing showed improved healing and more overall ulcer improvement with less deterioration in the ulcer. Once the acute situation has resolved it will be necessary to ensure redistribution of the weight-bearing forces on the vulnerable foot by the use of specially constructed shoes or moulded insoles. Application of a total contact plaster cast, lightweight scotch cast boot, or air cast boots may help healing. These conform to the contours of the foot, thereby reducing shear forces on the plantar surface. Great care must be taken, especially with the fitting of plasters, to prevent chafing and subsequent ulcer formation elsewhere on the foot or ankle (Watkins, 2003). If recurrence of neurophatic ulceration is to be avoided, regular follow-up by a chiropodist will be required. An ongoing podiatry to remove excess callus and provide nail care regular assessment, look for active lesions and treat immediately, detect and manage deformities, callus, skin cracks, and discoloration, simple sensory test, examine pulses such as dorsalis pedis and posterior tibial, assess ankle reflex and assess other sensory modalities (Alexander, Fawcett Runciman, 2000). The patients experience will be improved by having a highly structured care. The patients infected ulcer shows healing improvement and prevent from amputation. Understanding the diabetic foot, the proper examination of the patients feet, investigations to classify the foot ulcers, and proper management techniques using a team approach, along with preventive steps, will go a long way in limb salvage and prevention of foot amputation (Pendsey, 2010). Section 5. Evidence based guidance Identify a contemporary source of evidence based guidance (i.e. a clinical guideline) which could be used as a basis for providing a high standard of care to patients with this type of wound. Critically discuss how the guidance given in this document might influence your nursing practice including whether you believe there are any omissions or recommendations made that would be difficult to manage in your own clinical setting (Phillipines). You must clearly state the full reference of your chosen guideline document and link your work to other healthcare literature where appropriate. Approximate word count: 500 Your answer here:

The Untouchables: Mise-en-scene Analysis :: Film Movie

The Untouchables: Mise-En-Scene Analysis   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Elliot Ness, a treasury agent, has been trying to stop alcohol from being smuggled into the United States. He feels that the key to putting an end to the alcohol distribution is to put gangster, Al Capone, behind bars. But there is a small problem, Ness can't seem to be able to link the incoming alcohol, or any other crime to Capone. Until, Oscar Wallace, the uptight, â€Å" dorky†, government official, entered the picture to help Ness fight his battle for prohibition, and ultimately, against Capone. Wallace discovered that Capone hasn't paid his taxes for several years, but the only way to prove it is to get to Capone's book keeper. Ness discovers that the book keeper will be going to the train station, so he along with colleague George Stone intend to be there to pick him up when he arrives. The scene starts in the train station. The setting is the main lobby. The floors, pillars, and stairs are of a light gray color. There is a clock that is directly above the big, dark, wooden doors that are continuously reverted back to during the scene. The costumes of the main characters in this scene are the same as throughout the movie. Ness wears a light gray colored suit, hat, trench coat and tie. Stone is wearing a little darker colored, more casual, clothing with a tie and light colored hat. Capones men were dressed similarly with trench coats and hats of light colors. Also, the innocent bystanders in this scene are the sailors in their suits, the woman, with the baby in her innocent raggy clothes, and all the other people in the scene who look as though they might be Capones men. The lighting in this scene is a little bit dull, but gets darker when Capone shoots his gun at certain points of the scene.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The figure movement and expressions in this scene are normally paced, excluding the woman desperately struggling to get her baby carriage up the stairs, until the gunfire starts. The scene turns into slow motion and panic arises as the shooting begins and the baby carriage is released and slowly starts descending down the stairs. The mothers face is panicked and you can see her mouthing the words "My Baby". Then you see the innocent face of the baby and then the carriage plummeting to the bottom of the stairs. The expressions on Capones men are uncaring and crazy looking where as the expressions of the cops were determined looking. Also, the book keepers face is very frightened.

Environmental History Essay

During the last ice age, around 13,500 years ago, a number of people from other continents came to North America to find food. They have been able to walk across the Bering Land Bridge from Siberia and Alaska. This was likely possible because during that period the sea level were lower that it is today. The melting of the glaciers has cleared some passage for the Alaskan to spread and colonize areas throughout South America within the period of 1,000 years. In their conquest, these people had a major impact on the ecology and wildlife to which they have been destined. Studies on the archeological findings stated that prior to the coming of the early North Americans, the lands were covered with lush vegetation and large species of mammals and birds. The herbivores even included 3 species of elephants such as the woolly elephants, the giant mammoths and the mastodons. Such animals which are common were giant animals like bison, ground sloths, armadillos, beaver and tortoises. Giant predators also are preying on different herbivores. Such predators were the cheetahs, saber-toothed tigers, lions and giant wolves. Most of these large predators have migrated from the boreal forests of Canada to live in the forest of North America. Animal remains of these unimaginable sizes and power of these animals have been found but where and why these species have vanished is a questionable issue. Tim Flannery’s book The Eternal Frontier: An Ecological History of North America and Its Peoples concluded that during the coming of the early North Americans there was what he call the â€Å"Pleistocene Overkill†. He hypothesized that during the colonization of humans and reaching far across the continents, they almost wiped out large herbivores through hunting. Large animals were more noticeable thus making them prime targets. Their low reproductive rates cannot compensate for the losses because of frequent hunting. When these animals became extinct, their predators became extinct as well. The extinction of the predators made an impact in the extinction of large scavenger birds. Only animals which can prey on and frequent the oceans did not suffer high extinction rates during this time. (Moyle & Orland, 2004). There are also evidences that the early North American people has manipulated their surroundings and that they have modified their environment as based on observation of settlers from Europe. The settlers have documented that Indians shaped their environment through the use of fire especially during the late summer to minimize the valley’s underbrush and reduce the number of trees. This is to facilitate hunting and do their gathering. While the American Indians are moving across seasonally while using fire for easy game hunting, the European settlers made themselves fences and farmhouses as well and bringing with them domesticated animals and crops. The Europeans however, have influenced some of the Indians to properly control or stop the use of fire and introduced to them the proper use of land use and establishing properties and boundaries for their domain (Northwest, 1998). Eyewitness accounts from the early European explorers, trappers, soldiers and missionaries affirmed that prior to their settlement the wilderness were not pristine but rather the product of remains of thousands of years of usage and management by Native Americans. The Native Americans’ management also has consequences on their ecosystems and one example is the extinction of most large mammal species in North America between 10,800 and 10,000 years ago. This is probably the result of hunting practices of Paleo-Indians as previously mentioned and with the effect of rapid environmental changes. Once again the setting of fires for hunting, land clearance, warfare and signaling as well as forest fires contributed to the degradation of forest and ecology in the pre-modern American era (Bonnicksen, 2000). Based from The Ecological Indian: Myth and History by Shepard Krech III, the Paleo-Indians had a great role in the extinction of animal species in North America. Krech believe that Paleo-Indians played great role in the Pleistocene extinctions about 11,000 years ago when many indigenous animal species in North America vanished. Severe climate changes however were also contributory to the extinctions of such animals. Krech uphold that there was actually human intervention in the exploitation and extinction of animals in that period because of two important evidence. Such were the findings of Paleo-Indian artifacts with the remains of extinct animals and the fact that there was already the extinction of animals before the arrival of European settlers in North America. Notably, the use of fire by the North American Indians was widespread as an important method for their subsistence. Fire is also used for communication, aggression and travel. Notably, vast tracts of forest lands were burned so that animals may move out and go to a place where they could be easily hunted. These aboriginals thus destroyed the habitats of elk, deer, buffaloes, wolves and beaver thus killing them for their meat and fur (Orton, 1999). At the time of the arrival of the Europeans, many Indians were already farmers. Farmers in the East and Southwest were raising corns, beans, pumpkins and squash which are necessary for their subsistence because five thousand years ago, agriculture was already a practice in America. By 1500, millions of acres of were already cleared and planted crops by the indigenous people. Furthermore, there was a constant set of fire to more hundreds of millions of acres to improve game habitat, clearance for travel, reduce insect pests and to enhance conditions to grow berries. Vast areas of forest landscape in the West and East and park-like open spaces are usually smoking with low-intensity fires. Even in New England, Indians burn their woods twice in a year. The frequent burning of forest has created wide open grasslands which were formerly forests. Such indication of human disturbances and alteration in the ecological system were the proliferation of game animals such as the wild turkeys, white-tailed deer, ruffled grouse and other species commonly live only on forest edges and openings. By the end of the early 1600s, bison were roaming the prairies in the south and reached as far as Far East (Maccleery, 1999). The migration of early European settlers to North America, however, has introduced the barter and trade practices with the Native Americans. One of the most earliest and important industries in that period was the fur trade. The fur trade industry has played a great factor in the development of America and Canada for more than three centuries. The trade began in the 1500’s as an exchange of goods between Indians and Europeans and other tools and weapons as well. The Beaver fur was the most valuable of all the furs being traded. The earliest traders of furs in North America were the French explorers and fishermen who came to a place which is now Eastern Canada. With the scarcity of fur-bearing animals particularly the beavers, North Americans and Eskimos set traps as far as Canada. British and French empires were set in America because of fur trade in the early 1600’s. The prospect of wealth with this venture has brought Europeans to the New World thus the establishment of many trading posts in the wilderness. As settlements grew, states were established and later became such major cities as Detroit, New Orleans, and St. Louis. While in Canada, Edmonton, Montreal, Quebec and Winnipeg were also established. Because of its promising wealth venture, the fur trade has created a conflict between France and Great Britain in the American land. There were rivalries over trading and alliances between Indian tribes and other traders. Hostilities however, were shown by other Indians toward white settlers because the settlers prevented the Indians from clearing the forest with burning thus preventing the production of fur-bearing animals. With such disproportionate conflict, border between the United States and Canada were formed. But in the 1700’s, the fur trade started to decline in the Eastern United States as a result from the clearing of large tracts of lands for settlement. As the clearings grew wider, fur-bearing animals increasingly became scarce as well which hurt the trade in the Western America and Western Canada. Silk was found to be an alternative for clothing and accessories when fur-trading was stopped by 1870’s (Stuart, 2007). In conclusion to this, as stated by Shephard Krech III on his Reflections on Conservation, Sustainability, and Environmentalism in Indigenous North America, he has his own debate if really the old North Americans are environmentalists, ecologists or conservationist. As he has mentioned other facts rather than being in assuring, enough evidence must be drawn to come up with more solid proof that indeed they were. However, there is more information and evidence that showed generally, they have not been properly treated their environment in the proper perspective because what they all need in that period was to survive in the midst of a dark and forested land. The American Indians of today, however, are one of the most visible groups in rallying for the preservation of their land, their domain and their culture as well.

Polar Bears

The different adaptations of the Polar Bears and Brown Bears Polar Bears: Polar bears mainly eat seals Paw pads with rough surfaces help stop the Polar Bears from slipping on the ice Polar Bears don't swim The polar bear's fat layer, which is three to four inches thick, not only protects it from the cold A polar bear is so well insulated that it experiences no heat loss. The bear's blubber layer can measure 4. 5 inches thick. Polar bears have excellent underwater vision. They can spot food up to 15 feet away.They have sharp claws and teeth to eat prey Their ears have small surface area compared to body, reduces heat loss Thick white fur for camouflage and insulation Long legs for running to catch prey Brown Bears: They have thick insulating coats and tend to be large which helps them to keep their body heat They hibernate during winter. They have sharp claws and teeth which help them attack their prey. Adult brown bears are powerful; much of their diet consists of nuts, berries, frui t, leaves and oots.Bears also eat other animals. Brown bears can be recognized by their most distinctive feature, their shoulder hump. The shoulder muscle helps the bears to dig up roots and tear apart logs to find food. These muscles are located in the ‘hump' of the brown bear. Brown bears can move rocks and logs and dig through hard soil and rocky ground using their long sharp claws when making their dens. They eat grass, fruit, insects, roots and bulbs of plants.